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Friday, March 12, 2010

Important Lessons From History

The great period of Ancient Roman prosperity lasted only two centuries, until the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 C.E. Nevertheless, the physical and intellectual assets accumulated during those years have allowed Roman civilization to exert its influence until our day. We don't need to waste resources making mistakes that can easily be avoided if we pay attention to History.

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From the best times of Ancient Rome, we can learn important lessons about how to lead a rational life. Although technology and social context have evolved, we should still pay attention to recommendations of wise individuals who have learned from their errors, frequently after paying a heavy price. The following principles summarize essential elements of how to lead a rational life and enhance our chances of attaining happiness.
[1] You should aim at becoming an entrepreneur, irrespective of your social origin, since individual initiative has repeatedly proven to be the ideal tool to create wealth, independence, and psychological well-being. During the golden age of Ancient Rome, the number of self-employed people grew faster than in any previous time in History, as large parcels of uncultivated land were put to agricultural use for the first time. In the 21st century, the same phenomenon is taking place on the internet, which has become the great liberator of entrepreneurial energies without distinction of sex, race, age, or personal history.
[2] Devote your efforts only to feasible projects. Although the economy of Ancient Rome experienced sustained growth in the second century C.E., writings from that period show that it was not easy to obtain a loan. Contemporary financial institutions are thousands of times more efficient than the modest mortgage markets of Ancient Rome, but the number of individuals looking to borrow money has also grown exponentially. At any given time, there are always many more people in the world willing to borrow money than there are funds available. Do not waste your energy on projects that have no real chance of obtaining financial backing. Focus only on workable ventures.
[3] Look for alternative ways to achieve your goals. In Ancient Rome, individuals with vision faced similar obstacles as nowadays. How do you fund trade expeditions? Which goods should you import and export? Entrepreneurial men in ancient times quickly realized that the traditional Roman approach to business finance, a mortgage on a piece of land, was inadequate to conduct commercial enterprises. Through trial and error, they created different types of partnership contracts that have evolved through the centuries into our modern venture capital funds. Do not give up when traditional methods prove unsuitable to carry out your ideas. [4] Salesmanship opens the door to tolerance and friendship. Ancient Romans learned the hard way that a commercial attitude was the only way to maintain a high standard of living. Conflicts, although frequent, were limited in range. In the present context, when millions of individuals across the world are devoting their creativity to international commercial ventures, rationality is respected as the cardinal virtue of those who achieve business success. Effective salesmanship is nothing but logic applied to commerce.
Living in accordance to Nature marks the path to happiness today as it did it in Ancient Rome. Logic and consistency remain the pillars of personal growth. If you doubt that rationality is the best way to conduct your life, read History and study the dire consequences of prejudice and abuse. Instead of imitating others, let us learn the lessons of ancient wisdom and keep away deceitful theories that contradict the facts of History. We need to develop enough resiliency to avoid being overwhelmed by other people's opinion or lack of it. Studying Ancient Rome is a very effective method of reinforcing the idea that we should not waste our time trying to establish paradise on earth.
Discarding new proposals that do not work and favouring proven systems is a sign of wisdom. The same logic applies to walking away from situations where people tell us that rationality doesn't count.

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Lessons We Learn From History

History is one subject in the galaxy of subjects that teaches its readers not only the subject, but also a lot of wisdom. Most people hold the view that history is just a list of events that have occurred and put only in a chronological order. True history is a chronological list of events. But, if we study it only as that we are missing on it and we are not giving the subject its correct status.

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This subject has such a large perspective of things that, no other subject that is studied ever can be without its history. Science has a history, technological development has a history, religion has a history. No subject of any significance is without a history, then how can we say that history is trash. If man had not discovered that fire can be produced by rubbing two stones, how would the theory of creating of fire come into being? If the ancient man would not have produced the wheel, how could we know to the present uses of the wheel? If the Hindu religion did not have the division of castes, how would the present situation f castes come into being? So we can say that the very essence of man's progress is based on history and its study.
The evolution of man itself is based on history, his progress and most of his scientific and technological developments are all the results of man's history, of the History of evolution had not been confined into history books, and if we had not read these books, how would we know about our past, and how would we maintain the tempo of development and progress. Man learnt from his mistakes, his experiences, the shortcomings of his ancestors, and continued to progress. Is this not a contribution of history? Does this not make the study of history important for us? The one single subject that had contributed so immensely to the constant and continuous growth of civilization is the history.
Another plea for not studying this drab subject is when people say history is just what passed away people have done. It has often been said that, history repeats itself. This means that if we repeat the same mistakes we will reach the same disasters. Is this very little an advantage of study of the subject that, as people, as a community, as a country, we realize the mistakes of our ancestors, and we do not commit the same mistakes and get the same results? So, here comes the wisdom imparted by this lone subject. It is only after the study of history that we can assess the mistakes of the preceding generations. It is from history the Britishers have learned the imperialism cannot continue for ever. It is from history that Indians have learned that we have to remain united to keep the country one single unit, to keep it safe and strong. It is the study of history that makes the modern world shudder to think of another nuclear holocaust.
The memory of Nagasaki and Hiroshima is still fresh in the minds of the world and so the fear of repetition of this keeps us aware and cautious. Again, all this because of our study of history.
The differences of culture in different parts of the world are also brought to our knowledge by the history of the world. It is only through the study of history that we come to know about the social, political and educational systems of the world, and we can adapt them to our country, if we feel the need. History! Besides gaining knowledge, this subject teaches us wisdom of life and teaches causes and effects of different actions. If we continue to learn from our history we shall never make the same mistakes again - and that would be quite a step forward. Like science, history also gives us formula. Science gives formula for progress of elements and history gives us formula of success. If we learn from History, we humans will certainly continue to forge ahead, and become a more and more disciplined and cultured force.
Besides the big lessons that we learn from History, it also teaches us how to behave in our day-to-day lives. We learn how discipline helped the forces of Alexander the Great to overcome Indians, and how at the same time and venue, the undisciplined forces of India surrendered to them. We learn how with their service to India through missionaries, the British could steadily spread their wings through the length and breadth of India. We learn from history how love for mankind made saints of Vivekanand, Gautam Buddha and Mahavira. We learn from history how, man's desire to dominate others result in the ultimate break up of the British Empire in India. The greatest lesson that history has taught us Indians is the lesson we learned from our struggle for independence, i.e. we learned how much we can achieve if we stand united and have flare for nationalism.
Thus, this single subject which often faces the - ridicule of students and elders provides us with a sea of knowledge, insight and wisdom. It also teaches what the finer feelings of love and service can do for man. This one subject teaches us to become human and of course, it is the alma mater of all other subjects, as the history of any subject is taught before starting the study of the subject itself. It is this subject that gives us the understanding of all countries that we can assess our position and then continue on our path of progress.
When we study the biographies of great men, we learn how to follow their footsteps and try to achieve at least a semblance of their greatness. These biographies teach us the qualities of great men which we can emulate and try to be achievers. This single subject makes such an enormous contribution that it will not behave any of us to talk of it in a jocular tone, on slight it. It teaches us what actions are likely to have what reactions. It brings to light our rich heritage and also teaches us how the other countries are progressing. So we can say that history is a great teacher.

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Sunday, March 7, 2010

Role of Airships in World War I


In 1990s, Count von Zeppelin launched a blimp named "the Zeppelins" which was the most famous airship of all time. However, it had certain flaws, which resulted in its failure. After six years, the LZ2 was presented after covering all the flaws in the LZ1. It gained popularity among people very quickly. This airship was composed of lattice girders that were covered by using fabrics. Later on, these airships were also used in the First World War.

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Italy was the first country who got the idea of using these airships in the war. In March 1912, Italian forces decided to use blimps as a weapon. Whereas in the first half of 1914, Albert Caquot developed an observation balloon named as "Tethered Type R Observation Balloon" for the French army. These balloons were also used by united state, Germany and British, at the end of World War I.
Germans believed that the airships they had obtained as an ideal weapon to strike on the enemy. Zeppelin was the most popular airship of that time due to its long range that was used for naval operations. The World War started in 1914 but reached at its peak in 1915 when different countries became involved in this raid. Meanwhile, zeppelin was used by different countries for target selection and navigation purpose. In start, it was attacked by aircrafts. However, later on, incendiary bullets were developed for attacking on Zeppelin, which resulted in its failure in World War I. Later on counter measures were taken by the British for which they used different equipments for war like anti-aircraft artillery and search lights for detecting airships. Before the World War, these airships were only used for scouting purpose by the enemies. We can't say that blimps were totally unsuccessful in the World War I because they were still used for scouting, mine clearances, submarine attacks and many other purposes.
Amazingly, the British used more than 226 airships during World War I for many purposes like scouting and attacking on submarines of the enemy. On the other hand, France and Italy used these airships against enemies. France used non-rigid blimps for scouting purposes as well as for the bombing roles. Airships played their major role in the ending of the war when airplanes were replaced by these blimps or airships. In addition, it will not be wrong to say that airships played their vital role in World War I and gave birth to a new way of strategic war between countries.

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High School Medical School Programs


There are medical school programs available at almost every institution of higher learning, as well as high schools, vocational schools, and junior colleges. The list of health care related professions is appears to be exhaustive and continues to grow with rapid speed. The professions that are undergoing the greatest rise in demand are CNAs (Certified Nursing Assistant), RNs (Registered Nurse), LPNs (Licensed Practical Nurse), and NAs (Nursing Assistant). People who obtain any of these licenses are able to work in a broad field of medicine, including dentistry, psychiatry, pediatrics, rehabilitation, and end-of-life care.

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Students may begin training for a career in nursing or other health profession while still attending high school; some schools offer psychiatric aide and nurse training. For example, Cape Cod Regional Technical H.S. in Harwich, Massachusetts offers the following courses for adults:
Certified Nursing Assistant Training Program
Advanced Medical Coding for Physician Services
EKG / Cardiovascular Technician
Home Health Aide
Medical Billing
Medical Terminology
Dental Assistant Program
Courses at Cape Cod Tech range in price from $199 to $3,800 and do not include licensing fees. Some courses, such as the Certified Nursing Assistant Training Program include the cost of the required uniform shirt, text book, and CPR Training, while the most expensive - the Dental Assistant Program does not. Applicants must pay an additional $300 to cover the cost of the textbook, school supplies, and uniforms. Courses include Veterinary Assistant nutrition, medical coding and more. If you are interested in a career in medicine, this high school offers a terrific selection of medical school programs - on and off line.
Other private schools or adult education programs offer a free High School Diploma for those students who wish to concentrate in the Health Care programs, albeit their all other courses are fee based. For those high school students who are lucky enough to live in a district where public funding is set aside, students can earn a healthcare aide certificate, along with high school credits, for free. For example, courses that would normally cost $3,000 are free to students who attend St. Joseph H.S. in Alberta, Canada; courses are taken at Norquest College. Similarly, BOCES in Albany, New York also offers high school students free access to college medical school programs at Schenectady County Community College. It offers a free one year Nurse Assistant program, preparing high school juniors and seniors (grades 11 and 12) for the New York State Certified Nurse Assistant examination. Students must be in good standing and meet academic standards, which require that students attain a minimum competency level of 8th grade reading and 8th grade math. This medical school program prepares h.s. students to be hired in numerous health care related positions including:
Certified Nurse Assistant (CNA)
Personal care attendant
Rehabilitation aide
Nursing home/adult home assistant
Hospital nurse assistant
Transportation aide
Central supply aide
Whether you are an adult returning to school, with or without a h.s. diploma, or a high school student interested in entering the medical field, there are many opportunities for you to enroll in medical school programs.

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Princeton University

Princeton University, established in 1746, has a rich history that includes being an original member of the Ivy League and one of nine Colonial Colleges founded prior to the American revolution that created the United States of America.

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The nine schools that make up the Colonial Colleges are in order of establishment:
o New College (est. 1636, now Harvard University)
o The College of William and Mary (est. 1693)
o Collegiate School (est. 1701, now Yale University)
o College of New Jersey (est. 1746, now Princeton University)
o King's College (est. 1754, now Columbia University)
o College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (est. 1764, now Brown University)
o Queen's College (est. 1766, now Rutgers University)
o Dartmouth College (est. 1769)
Of the nine Colonial Colleges seven are now members of the esteemed Ivy League with the eighth member, Cornell University, being founded later on in 1865. William and Mary and Rutgers, the two Colonial Colleges that are not part of the Ivy League, transitioned to eventually become public institutions.
Although some of the Ivy League schools are over three hundred years old the term "Ivy League" was never used until 1933 and did not become official until 1954. While initially attached specifically to athletics the term Ivy League has more generally come to be associated with the eight high ranking academically focused institutions which are located in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island.
A sportswriter by the name of Stanley Woodward while writing for the New York Tribune made the first known reference to the phrase "ivy colleges" in an October, 1933 piece about the football season. While there is some debate as to whether Woodward borrowed the phrase from fellow Tribune sports writer Caswell Adams the details are hazy. Regardless of who coined the term it is noteworthy to recognize that the phrase Ivy League is a relatively recent moniker when compared to the age of the schools.
Princeton University, like all of the Ivy League schools (with the notable exception of the more recently established Cornell University), was founded with religious influences as was custom for the time for all schools. Originally founded under the name the College of New Jersey, present day Princeton University (modern name given in 1896) began with Presbyterian influence. Despite a public position officially stating that the school was nonsectarian the purpose of the college in its earliest years was to train ministers in the beliefs held by the Presbyterian founders.
With a rich history that includes the attendance of three United States Presidents (James Madison, Woodrow Wilson, and John F. Kennedy) Princeton University has clearly established itself as one of the most academically successful schools in America, as is evident by the college's recurring position atop the US News and World Reports best colleges rankings.
In today's increasingly smaller and flatter world technological and travel advancements make the communities we live in increasingly global. Regardless of Princeton University's history in the Colonial Colleges and Ivy League the school must look towards the future in terms of global influence to continue its tradition of excellence.

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Why You Need a High School Education

Hopefully, you go via high school, graduate, and then go on to have a great life. If you are one of the teenagers out there that is struggling in school, you might ask yourself why a high school education is so essential if you do not plan on likely to university and possibly you have a employment waiting for you. No matter what is about to happen immediately after you happen to be done with your high school years, acquiring you diploma is extra significant than you imagine. Obtaining your diploma and finishing high school seriously isn't just about about to college, it can be about being prepared for life. You discover things in school that you require for each day living whether you are planning to university or any other sort of higher understanding following you are accomplished or not. With no these skills and classes, you will be about to struggle with points everyone else finds to become rather simple.
Classes aren't the only thing that shape your high school education. It doesn't matter what type of job or career you're going to pursue, you are going to deal with persons that are not like you. You also learn about lifetime in methods that you might not learn otherwise. When you miss out on these parts of your high school education, you could have to understand this stuff somewhere else, which just isn't always simple.
High school education isn't just about understanding the above mentioned elements. It truly is also about having a good time and enjoying your youth. Yes, you could have tests and homework to worry about, but you also have friends much more plentiful than possibly in any other time in life. You also have organized sports teams and clubs that you simply can join. These are all excellent parts of growing up that essentially contribute to your school education and also to who you're going to be once you go out into the world on your own. Don't feel about the work involved without having thinking about the fun you are able to have as well.
You need to actually feel about your high school education as your job whilst you are a teenager. Those people that have a high school diploma are gonna be paid extra for the same employment than people that do not have one. This seriously isn't continually true, but it normally is. Finishing school also shows that you're committed to finishing what you started, which continually looks beneficial to a potential employee. And who knows, you might change your mind about college or high studying inside the future, and already having your diploma is likely to make your life so much easier.

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History Curriculum For High School Homeschoolers


Finding a good history curriculum for high school was one of the greatest challenges I faced when I was being homeschooled. It seemed like most of the good history books stop at the Civil War or World War II. What about modern history? It's hard to find a history book from a Christian perspective about modern history. This difficulty has been overcome with a high school history curriculum from Notgrass Company. Exploring America by Ray Notgrass is an amazing curriculum that is exciting as well as educational. Each day is broken up into short concise lessons.
Sometimes history books seem to make the exciting events sound like nothing more than boring facts, Mr. Notgrass has an engaging writing style that makes the events come to life. There are also daily assignments that encourage the students to dig deeper. Sometimes they will read a document, speech, or hymn from American Voices, which is a 400+ page companion book that comes with the curriculum. Other times they will look up relevant Bible verses and also memorize verses. Writing assignments (including writing a research paper) are also part of the assignments. How's that for hitting 3 birds with one stone?
This book is essential for every high school student and will give them the tools to take an in-depth look at American history from a Biblical perspective. If you are looking for a really good American history high school curriculum look no further. Exploring America has filled a big gap in the history curriculum for homeschoolers. Exploring America is the best high school curriculum for American history I have ever seen!




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A Brief History of Bank Checks


There is no surviving documented proof of exactly when financial checks came to be part of financial transactions. Banks were a part of commercial life in ancient civilizations, but there are no records of any of the types of transactions that they carried out. However the ancient Mesopotamians, Greeks, and the Romans used banks. Some historians have dated the process of using checks at about 350 BC.

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Certainly in Medieval Italy the banks played a vital part in commercial transactions. Venice and Genoa were an important trading centers. Historical research indicated that Marco Polo brought the idea of a check back to Italy from the court of Kublai Khan in 1275. Once written instructions were acceptable it made a wider number of transactions possible.
Medieval Tuscan banks began the process of letters of credit and letters of exchange and the by fifteenth hundreds these types of transactions were common. They allowed the Italian mercantile trade to flourish because it was safer to write a check rather than carry large amounts of cash around.
By the early Sixteenth Century the practice had expanded to the Netherlands and once the banks had accepted a policy of paying money upon written instructions, this was the start of the modern account based payments by check. The English called their checks "cheque", and they still use the "que" at the end of the word.
The process of adapting checks occurred very quickly in America, in the 1600's the tobacco farmers in Virginia mortgaged their land and began to utilize their funds by writing checks. The oldest surviving check dates back to an English banker Lawrence Childs and it is dated 1762. The etymology of the word is unclear some view the root source to come from a double check to clarify the signatory. The Norman Kings developed a fiscal system and all the accounting was done on a piece of cloth which was divided into squares, with counters like draughts pieces.
When checks were first adapted the transactions were more secure for the customer and the recipient who could transfer funds without actually carrying cash. As the system grew in popularity so did the number of messengers travelling between banks. Eventually clearing houses were developed where the checks were exchanged. Historically this was supposed to have started in London when two chatting messengers realized that they were each carrying a check for the other bank and they exchanged them on the spot.
In the U.S.A. the bankers have a choice they can present checks to other banks, the Federal Reserve or private clearing houses for clearance. There is no reason to transport checks from bank to bank the clearing houses scan them and read the characters at the bottom of the check, which identifies the banks they are to be drawn against this is what is known as the routing or sort code. Then there is the individual account number at the base of the check and the number of the check. Once they have been scanned and identified they are presented to the bank electronically to draw the funds.
Until a few years ago checks were very basic as they still are in Europe, they have the banks name, the account name and number and the cheque number as well as a number identifying the bank that they are drawn against. In America theme checks are now all the rage. From a small change the individualization of checks snowballed.
Nowadays the checks are not issued necessarily by the bank; it is possible to purchase checks from outside approved sources. They are printed with family photographs in some cases. They are available in a huge arrangement of themes, colors, prints and borders.
In the twenty first Century there are other methods of paying bills, by credit, debit or charge card, and this has reduced the number of checks issued, the heyday for check numbers was the sixties, but none the less it is difficult to imagine that the need for checks will cease anytime soon. Who knows the credit crunch may well increase the amount of checks written as credit becomes harder to come by.

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A History of Quantum Mechanics


Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens begun working on a wave theory of light in the 1670s, this was reliant on the idea that light waves must propagate through a medium and so the void between the Sun and the Earth must be filled with an aether. In 1704 Newton suggested a corpuscular (particle) theory of light and presented experimental results proving his theory. Newton's corpuscular theory suggested that light would travel faster in a denser medium, something which was denied by the wave theory of light and so it was possible to experimentally verify Newton's result. It was not possible to do these experiments until 1850 and Foucault's results proved Newton wrong. Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel had already provided experimental evidence in favour of the wave theory of light at the turn of the 19th century. Their famous double-slit experiments showed that light produced interference patterns which are expected from waves and Young went on to explain Newton's results in terms of his wave theory.
Towards the end of the 1800s Maxwell proposed that light could be understood as the propagation of electromagnetic waves; at any point on a beam of light there is an electric and a magnetic force moving perpendicularly to each other in the direction of the beams propagation. These force fields oscillate periodically and are therefore detected as waves. Maxwell showed this by verifying a set of four equations which describe the interrelationship between electric field, magnetic field, electric charge, and electric current.
Max Planck first introduced the concept of quanta in 1900, this reintroduced a corpuscular theory of light. Planck was looking at the relationship between the amount of radiation a blackbody emits and its temperature and he found that the experimental data only made sense if it was assumed that energy radiates in discrete 'quanta', or photons, each containing a packet of energy proportional to the frequency with which they radiate. This proportionality constant is known as Planck's constant.
Einstein applied the idea of Planck's constant to the problem of the photoelectric effect in 1905. The photoelectric effect shows that electrons can be released from certain metals by interacting with light, and that the amount of electrons that released depended not upon the intensity of the light, as Maxwell's theory suggested, but on the lights frequency. Einstein showed that this could be explained with a quantum theory of light whereby electrons are released only when particular frequencies are reached, corresponding to multiples of Planck's constant.
The double slit experiment can be performed on one photon at a time by letting sufficiently weak light travel through the slits. It was expected that no interference pattern would form as the photon must travel through either one slit or the other and would have nothing to interfere with. Yet this experiment has been performed numerous times and after letting a stream of photons through one at a time, what looked like random distribution soon turned into an interference pattern. This implies that the photon split when going through the two slits and reformed to be detected as a single photon on the other side. In order to see if this is what happened a photon detector was placed at each slit and the experiment was repeated. Yet no matter how many times this was done an interference pattern was never formed. The same results were found even when the detectors were placed on the other side of the slits, implying that the photon somehow knew that the detector would be there. It was found that photons behave as a particle when equipment is used to test for a particle and as a wave when a wave is being tested for.
In 1913 Bohr used the idea of quantised energy to explain how electrons orbit a nucleus by relating the angular momentum of electrons to Planck's constant. He deduced that electrons orbit with energy and momenta that are quantised to multiples of Planck's constant. All other values are not accessible to the electron, including certain spatial regions, and so when traveling between orbits the electrons seem to disappear and simultaneously appear somewhere else. This is why electrons do not loose energy as they orbit the nucleus but do so when 'jumping' between states. Just over a decade after Bohr extended the quantum theory to electrons, de Broglie proposed that all matter behaves this way.
In 1926 Schrodinger showed that quantum states can be represented not as waves or particles but by a complex function which evolves according to a second-order differential wave equation. Schrodinger's wave equation shows that a quantum state has a unitary evolution, with quanta existing in all physically possible states at once, this is known as a superposition. Schrodinger saw that if two quantum objects influence each other and are then parted they will be in a state of entanglement, such that interacting with one will change the state of another. If a pair of electrons are emitted from a common origin in an entangled state, and travel in different directions, then we can measure the spin of the electron in one plane and know the result of the other because they are always anti-correlated. Schrodinger showed that there is no equation for the state of a single entangled electron, they cannot really be said to possess individual spin states.
Around the same time as Schrodinger produced the wave equation Niels Bohr and his assistant at Copenhagen, Werner Heisenberg, used a matrix theory to interpret quantum mechanics, leading to the formulation of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Bohr and Heisenberg showed that properties corresponding to more than one physical possibility cannot be measured simultaneously for an object in a superpositional state, these properties are said to be non-commuting. The wave and particle properties of light are non-commuting and so by detecting a photon with a particle detector we remove our ability to measure any of its wavelike properties.
Energy and time are also non-commuting properties. The lowest energy state for waves is always right at the peak, if you imagine a pendulum swung on a string, it is stationary for just a second as it passes through the point between swinging from one side to the other. Here gravitational potential energy converts to kinetic energy, the position and momentum would be zero and so if we apply this logic to quantum mechanics we would assume that a quantum state would have zero energy at this point. The analogy is flawed however because quantum systems cannot have their position and momentum measured simultaneously, they can not both be zero and so they must have a non-zero minimum energy. In fact, quanta can have extremely high energies for very short periods of time. When a stream of quanta are fired at an impenetrable wall some will gain enough energy to tunnel through and appear on the other side.
These fluctuations are occurring everywhere and so if we look closely Einstein's smooth spacetime is in fact 'foaming' with quantum energy, this energy can create objects like electrons or photons which are continuously coming into existence for extremely short periods of time. The energy from these quantum fluctuations adds up to an enormous amount and since Einstein discovered that energy is interchangeable with mass this huge amount of energy would be so heavy that it should bend space, curving it up into a small ball. Later that year Max Born proposed a statistical interpretation of Schrodinger's wave function, with the square of the wavefunction interpreted as a probability amplitude. The mathematical interpretation of quantum mechanics was completed when the matrix mechanics used in Heisenberg's theories and the wave mechanics used in the Schrodinger equation were made compatible. This problem was tackled most notably by John von Neumann and Paul Dirac. In the standard von Neumann theory a quantum system is thought of as a point in Hilbert space. Hilbert space is analogous to the dimensional phase space of classical mechanics but includes an infinite amount of dimensions, representing the infinite amount of linear combinations of vectors corresponding to all of the possible states. Measurable properties, are represented as linear Hermitian operators on Hilbert spaces and the uncertainty principle can be explained by the fact that the two operators are non-commutating. A different approach came in 1926 when Pascual Jordan provided an independent unification of matrix and wave mechanics known as transformation theory.
Einstein was amongst many who believed that the theory of quantum mechanics must be incomplete because of the appearance of action at a distance. Einstein proposed a hidden variable theory with the motion of the quantum objects guided by the electromagnetic field. This was similar to the de Broglie-Bohm pilot-wave model of the wavefunction. In 1964 John Stewart Bell devised a way to theoretically test whether a hidden variable theory could be correct. In 1972 the experiments were conducted and they showed that Einstein was wrong and the Aspect experiments, performed in 1982, showed that this is true even if the distance between the entangled objects was such that any 'message' would have to travel faster than the speed of light. The Bell experiments strongly imply that entangled quantum systems can instantaneously influence each other even when separated across vast regions. The idea of action at a distance could be seen as analogous to Newtonian action at a distance but it differs in two respects. Firstly, quantum action at a distance does not have the symmetry that gravitational force has because in quantum mechanics the first measurement always determines the outcome of the other, they are not of mutual influence. Secondly in quantum mechanics the effects are irrespective of distance, whereas in the Newtonian model the force decreases proportionally to the square of the distance between objects. A better interpretation may be quantum holism. Holism refers to the idea that aspects of a state are not determined by its constituent parts but of the state as a whole.

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A Brief History of Management Theory


The work of management theorists over the last hundred and fifty years can be used to argue the case for an in depth theoretical, as well as practical knowledge of many management styles, including the positive and negative attributes of each. It is also important to examine the 'structure' of different organisations to consider how it affects, and is affected by the management style of that organisation. Organisational Structure is essentially concerned with the allocation of authority and power. A 'hierarchical organisation' will have the greatest power at the top of the organisation, and the command structure will be in a downward direction. In a 'flat organisation' power is distributed more evenly, but there will still be major differences in the level of power and authority between different members of the company. Some organisations such as the armed forces or police have many tiers (or levels) and are tall in their hierarchy. The 'span of control' (number of people an individual manages or supervises directly) is closely linked to the type of organisational hierarchy that exists. The re-visiting of these theories will provide conclusive evidence that management theory is central to the modern manager's education.
The Work of Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915)
Frederick Taylor, whilst working as a gang boss in a lathe department in Midvale, USA became determined to eradicate 'systematic soldiering'; an attempt by workers to do no more than was necessary. Taylor developed a strategy where particular jobs were studied, then broken down into individual tasks, which had to be completed exactly as stated. Each task was allocated a time, based on the timed work of the quickest worker. Workers were then allocated specific tasks, and were not allowed to deviate from that task at all. As Taylor believed that money was the main motivator, a payment was made for each completed unit of output (piece rate)
Many organisations and work methods are still influenced by Taylor's concept of 'Scientific Management Methods' This can be seen on factory assembly lines, and even in the commercial kitchen, where each member of staff is allocated a small but specific task in making up a completed gourmet meal. Piece rates may not be prevalent, but the allocation of boring, repetitive tasks is common. An article in The Sunday Times, 3rd April 1983 tells of one worker's plight, assembling the Maestro car at the Cowley Plant. He had just one hundred seconds to screw on two rubber buffers and fit three small plates to the rear wheel arch. Some of Taylor's early followers achieved spectacular results in increasing output. However, the stringent and oppressive tactics that were employed often led to industrial unrest. After 'Scientific Management Methods' were employed at the Watertown Arsenal, immediate strikes ensued. The American Congress eventually banned Taylor's time and motion studies in its defense industry.
The use of such methods in the modern workplace can produce useful results in the short term, but for longer-term rewards they must be balanced against the effects on workforce morale. To assume that everybody can work at the same rate as the fastest worker, and that money is the only real motivator may not be borne out. Today's workers want to be empowered, and to take an active role in their organisations, not be treated like machines where only the end product is important.
Henry Laurence Gantt
Henry Gantt worked for Taylor at the Bethlehem Steel Works. His ideas were broadly supportive of Taylor's ideas, but he added a more humanizing approach. He believed that scientific management was used in an oppressive way by the unscrupulous. Gantt moved away from the strict piece rate system of pay, instead offering a set wage plus 20% - 50% bonuses. If workers achieved the set objectives within the day a bonus would be paid. Supervisors were introduced who also received bonuses if targets were met by his team.
Gantt's less oppressive regime can be seen today in many organisations. In factories around the globe workers receive bonuses for achieving daily, weekly or monthly targets.
The Work of Henri Fayol (1841-1925)
Henri Fayol, the 'Father of Modern Management Theory' was interested in how management worked, and could be applied on a universal basis. His theories focused on Rules, Roles and Procedures.
Fayol's 'Five Elements of Management' are:
* Planning
Setting objectives, and strategies, policies and procedures to achieve them.
* Organising
Setting tasks to achieve the objectives. Allocating the tasks to groups or individuals, and empowering those responsible for that task.
* Commanding
Instructing those carrying out the given task.
* Coordinating
Ensuring a common approach by groups to meet the objectives of the organisation.
* Controlling
Ensuring the performance of individuals and groups fits with the plans, and correcting as necessary.
Fayol's theories are as relevant today as they ever were, and most, if not all managers use his 'elements of management'.
The Work of Peter Drucker
* Setting Objectives
Senior Managers organise objectives into targets. This is cascaded down to more Junior Managers.
* Organising
The workload is divided into manageable activities and jobs.
* Motivating
This involves communicating and creating the right conditions for targets to be achieved.
* Measurement
Comparing performance against targets.
* Development
Enabling people to use their talents.
Fayol and Drucker had very different views on the role of workers within their theories. Fayol's work has a distinct leaning towards worker's having to be told what to do, their work checked and corrected, with managers delegating tasks and overseeing from a high level (a Tall Hierarchy?). Conversely, Drucker's ethos is about the empowerment of workers, giving them the opportunity to utilise their talents, with managers occupying a role that is more about assisting and coaching workers.
Fayol's ideas fail to take into account the people within the workplace, whereas Drucker takes a somewhat more humanist approach.
Elton Mayo - The Human Relations Approach
The approach assumed that workers were genuinely committed to their companies and that they had a desire to work towards achieving its goals.
Elton Mayo had carried out experiments at the Hawthorne Plant, and these sought to find ways to improve production by changing workers conditions and pay structures. Mayo worsened conditions for workers, then returning them to how they were. The rise in output was due to workers communicating more and working as a tighter team unit. Volvo and Honda have seen the development of work team in recent years, with the differences between workers and managers being far from obvious. People wear the same uniforms, and the emphasis on communication is high. Developing cohesive teams who work well together and share the same goals ensures a high level of motivation for the tasks required. The structure of this type of organisation could be considered a 'flat hierarchy' with a wide span of control for managers working over a skilled and competent workforce. Subordinates are well trained and a good level of trust between managers and workers exists.
The 'Human Relations Approach' is definitely a positive way of management for the 21st Century, where personal empowerment and self-esteem should not be in question.
Mr Whitehead's view that "Haven't generations of managers done perfectly well by learning on the job and applying a bit of common sense" cannot accurately be quantified. Within the Fire Service, promotion to managerial roles is based on internal qualifications and interview alone. Virtually all managers have based their management style on exactly what Mr. Whitehead advises in his letter. Some are very good and are respected as such; however there are a large number who cannot manage people or their responsibilities within the organisation. Respect for leadership within the fire service is essential, but often rare in modern times. Managers who had an in depth knowledge of management strategy may well motivate the workforce to new heights. This type of 'tall hierarchical' organisation has many tiers of command with spans of control for senior managers being relatively small, with the widest spans of control being at junior management level.
"An endless supply of new gurus spin off new batches of buzzwords which help successive generations of whiz kids to get promoted on the basis of slogans" is not an accurate depiction of the modern manager. Studies of management styles allow one to make informed decisions, and to have an array of options at your disposal, and to adapt to the ever-changing pressures on the organisation, both internal and external.
"Meanwhile real managers just do what they have always done, maintaining discipline and telling people what to do"
The idea of a 'one style fits all' manager is unrealistic, and one that has a proven track record of leading to unrest. Even within one organisation the manager or managers need to be flexible within their roles. Leadership is vital, but a leader who is flexible, approachable, and has the interest and aspirations of both workers and organisation at the forefront of their strategy will flourish. Conversely, the manager who's only interest is the level of output and profit will not be supported by those producing that output. My review of the theories of 'management gurus' of the past is designed to show that these ideas are not new. One can look at any organisation and see many of these ideas working in parallel. As far as organisational structure is concerned, one cannot make stereotypical assumptions based purely on the size of the organisation or the number of employees. The style of management and the systems of work employed all help to define the structure. Most businesses are constantly evolving and redefining themselves to meet the requirements of the modern marketplace.




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Examination Phobia


Examinations are a source of inspiration. It is the time for demonstration of abilities of students as well as the teachers. There are two types of functions which the examination serve. Firstly, a goal is fixed up for which students and teachers put in all their efforts to achieve. In the examinations, students show their feelings, ideas and wisdom in the form of written answers. Students always try to gain power of expression through continuous practice and writing. This significant aspect of personality is automatically developed in the present system of examination. Sometimes, lengthy answers are required to explain the required things against specific questions. However, at times students try to cram up the lengthy answers without really understanding the basics and then do mistakes in writing or recollecting the answers. This does not increase the intelligent understanding of the subject matter. As such, there is need to examine the two aspects of teaching and mode of examination.
All people take pains and make efforts to send their children to best schools and colleges so that, the children get best education. The teachers also try to do justice to the cause of parents and teach the students throughout the year, they take it as a responsibility not only towards the parents but to the society. Then it is expected from students also that they study hard and show good results. So it is possible through examinations only to judge where our children have reached in the education system. The importance of examinations is undoubtedly unchallenged. However, some parents want these examinations to be abolished. They feel that it encourages students to do copying and all types of cheating to score the best or in some cases the minimum required pass marks. But there are more parents who feel it as an essential part of an education system.
Many students think that they have to pass the examination just to get promoted to the higher class. They try to follow cheap notes or "Guess tests" etc. available in the market. Language and expression play the most vital role in any type of examination. Whether it is the paper of History, Science or Civics, the complete understanding and knowledge of that subject is not tested through the present mode of examination. A student having more knowledge and understanding of the subject may not be able to express himself fully due to his slow writing. He would never be on the top list of scholars. The questions are selected at random, therefore, a student can get more marks than the other who happens to learn only those few topics while preparing for the examinations. So it can be the matter of luck or chance than ability to succeed with higher marks in an examination.
In spite of various demerits of the system of examinations, it is the students who have to give due thought and use their own intelligence while preparing for, as well as appearing in the examinations. They have to keep in mind that during limited period of papers in examinations only selected material can be tested by the examiners. The students have to point of view of subject matter and those particular questions. Thus examinations help the students to develop the power of analyzing, the power of thinking, reasoning and to make the right and correct decisions based on their judgements. The students have to search the material in various books. The relevant and irrelevant part of the material can be separated out by them. Thus the students learn to know the importance of advance planning and avoid irrelevant topics which are not necessary for success in their life.
In view of above all, it is felt that examinations need reforms from the certain evils connected with present system. Knowledge gained by cramming and tested by theoretical examinations is unsound and superficial. A scientific shape is required to be given to the system of examination. The objective type of test papers being introduced in some of the examinations are the right steps in this direction. In this way, most of the course material is covered and tested. It tests the basic understanding of the students about a specific subject and real progress of students is judged and measured.





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The History of Bandung in Indonesia


Bandung, Indonesia is currently the hub of West Java and is regarded as a place where the earliest Java Man, or the Australoputhecus, have lived. The banks and the Great Lake of Bandung are said to have been the exact place where the Java Man resided. Apart from the Java Man, who lived for years in the shores of Bandung, there were also the Sundanese. Sundanese people are native groups that were mostly comprised of Muslims.

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These people lived in fertile areas and soon developed a unique oral theater called the Wayang Golek that makes use of puppets. The puppet theater was used to display the creativity of the people. Music was also a specialty of the Sundanese, which shows the diversity and the musical skills of these groups. A group of Europeans visited the city and discovered the richness of the land. So, in 1786 a road connecting Bandung, Cianjur, Bogor, and Jakarta, was built. And in 1809, Louis Napoleon ordered the Governor General to intensify the defense of the city from the English. The Great Post Road (Groote Postweg) that was built was too far from Bandung's capital. So, the Governor General instructed to have the capital of the city relocated. The relocation became a success and because of the deep root of traditions by the people, a Grand Mosque (Mesjid Agung) was built.
The changes that have been made in Bandung, the life of the people changed and improved. Hotels, shops, and restaurants were built, which meant providing jobs for the people. Railroads were also built, thus, enhancing the transport of crops which resulted to the economic growth of Bandung. Today, Bandung can be seen as a progressive place with people thriving to get a better life through education. The city definitely has a very rich history and every visitor will definitely feel the honor to go to a place where Muslims have lived so long as the beautiful people of Bandung. So, the next time you plan for a vacation, list Bandung as your next destination.

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History of Online Banking


The idea was quickly snapped up by other banks like Wells Fargo, Chase Manhattan and Security First Network Bank. Today, quite a few banks operate solely via the Internet and have no 'four-walls' entity at all.
In the beginning, its inventors had predicted that it would be only a matter of time before online banking completely replaced the conventional kind. Facts now prove that this was an overoptimistic assessment - many customers still harbor an inherent distrust in the process. Others have opted not to use many of the offered facilities because of bitter experience with online frauds, and inability to use online banking services.
Be that as it may, it is estimated that a total of 55 million families in America will be active users of online banking by the year 2010. Despite the fact that many American banks still do not offer this facility to customers, this may turn out to be an accurate prediction. The number of online banking customers has been increasing at an exponential rate.
Initially, the main attraction is the elimination of tiresome bureaucratic red tape in registering for an account, and the endless paperwork involved in regular banking. The speed with which this process happens online, as well as the other services possible by these means, has translated into a literal boom in the banking industry over the last five years. Nor are there any signs of the boom letting up - in historical terms, online banking has just begun.

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The Industrial Revolution


The Industrial Revolution was the turning point in the Earth's ecology, and the relationship between humans and the environment on the whole. However, in our pursuit of developing our countries at a fast pace, we started overusing the natural resources. As a result, many resources are now on the verge of exhaustion or short supply.
The changes in agricultural, mining, manufacturing and transportation industries improved the basic quality of human life. However, at the same time, these changes depleted the natural resources of the planet. Also, the release of carbon emissions into the atmosphere has polluted the environment. And due to rampant deforestation, there are not enough trees left that can absorb these carbon emissions. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1700s and then quickly moved to the United States, before progressing to other parts of the world. The processes saw sweeping increases in production capacity, but at the same time they literally wiped away the environment of its resources. Industrialization also increased the growth of population, as the standard of living increased. Hence, our dependence on the natural resources increased manifold and soon a large majority of the resources became scarce. There is also growing inequality between the way the benefits of the resources are distributed between the rich and the poor.

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